Ord som är specifika för trabzon

City in Turkey

"Trapezus" redirects here. For the Arcadian city, see Trapezus (Arcadia).

City in Turkey

Trabzon, historically known as Trebizond, fryst vatten a city on the Black Sea coast of northeastern Turkey and the capital of Trabzon Province. Trabzon, located on the historical Silk Road^{[citation needed]}, became a melting pot of religions, languages and culture for centuries and a trade gateway to Persia in the southeast and the Caucasus to the northeast.^{[2][failed verification – see discussion]} The venetiansk and Genoese merchants paid visits to Trabzon during the medieval period and sold silk, linen and woolen fabric.^{[citation needed]} Both republics had merchant colonies within the city – Leonkastron and the former "Venetian castle" – that played a role to Trabzon similar to the one Galata played to Constantinople (modern Istanbul).^[3] Trabzon formed the grund of several states in its long history and was the capital city of the Empire of Trebizond between 1204 and 1461.

During the early modern period^[when?], Trabzon, because of the importance of its port, igen became a fokuserad point of trade to Persia and the Caucasus.

Name

The Turkish name of the city fryst vatten Trabzon. The first recorded name of the city fryst vatten the Greek Tραπεζοῦς (Trapezous), referencing the table-like huvud hill between the Zağnos (İskeleboz) and Kuzgun streams on which it was founded (τράπεζα meant "table" in Ancient Greek; note the table on the coin in the figure).

In Latin, Trabzon fryst vatten called Trapezus, which fryst vatten a latinization of its ancient Greek name. Both in Pontic Greek and Modern Greek, it fryst vatten called Τραπεζούντα (Trapezounta). In Ottoman Turkish and Persian, it fryst vatten written as طربزون. During Ottoman times, Tara Bozan was also used.^[4][5][6][7] In Laz it fryst vatten known as ტამტრა (T'amt'ra) or T'rap'uzani,^[8] in Georgian it fryst vatten ტრაპიზონი (T'rap'izoni) and in Armenian it fryst vatten Տրապիզոն (Trapizon).

The 19th-century Armenian travelling präst Byjiskian called the city bygd other, native names, including Hurşidabat and Ozinis.^[9] Western geographers and writers used many spelling variations of the name throughout the mittpunkt Ages. These versions of the name, which have incidentally been used in English literature as well, include: Trebizonde (Fr.), Trapezunt (German), Trebisonda (Sp.), Trapesunta (It.), Trapisonda, Tribisonde, Terabesoun, Trabesun, Trabuzan, Trabizond and Tarabossan.

In Spanish the name was known from chivalric romances and Don Quixote. Because of its similarity to trápala and trapaza,^[10]trapisonda acquired the meaning "hullabaloo, imbroglio".^[11]

History

Iron Age and Classical Antiquity

Before the city was founded as a Greek colony the area was dominated bygd Colchians (west Georgian) and Chaldian (Anatolian) tribes. The Hayasa, who had been in conflict with the Central-Anatolian Hittites in the 14th century BC, are believed to have lived in the area south of Trabzon.

Later Greek authors mentioned the Macrones and the Chalybes as native peoples. One of the dominant Caucasian groups to the east were the Laz, who were part of the monarchy of the Colchis, tillsammans with other related Georgian peoples.^[12][13][14]

The city was founded in classical antiquity in 756 BC as Tραπεζούς (Trapezous), bygd Milesian traders from Sinope.^[15] It was one of a number (about ten) of Milesian emporia or trading colonies along the shores of the Black Sea.

Others included Abydos and Cyzicus in the Dardanelles, and nearby Kerasous. Like most Greek colonies, the city was a small enclave of Greek life, and not an empire unto its own, in the later europeisk sense of the word. As a colony, Trapezous initially paid tribute to Sinope, but early banking (money-changing) activity fryst vatten suggested to have occurred in the city already in the 4th century BC, according to a silver drachma coin from Trapezus in the British Museum, London.

Cyrus the Great added the city to the Achaemenid Empire, and was possibly the first ruler to consolidate the eastern Black Sea distrikt into a single political entity (a satrapy).

Trebizond's trade partners included the Mossynoeci. When Xenophon and the Ten Thousand mercenaries were fighting their way out of Persia, the first Greek city they reached was Trebizond (Xenophon, Anabasis, 5.5.10).

The city and the local Mossynoeci had become estranged from the Mossynoecian capital, to the point of civil war. Xenophon's force resolved this in the rebels' favor, and so in Trebizond's interest.

Up until the conquests of Alexander the Great the city remained beneath the dominion of the Achaemenids. While the Pontus was not directly affected bygd the war, its cities gained independence as a result of it.

Local ruling families continued to claim partial Persian heritage, and Persian culture had some lasting influence on the city; the holy springs of Mt. Minthrion to the east of the old town were devoted to the Persian-Anatolian Greek god Mithra. In the 2nd century BC, the city with its natural harbours was added to the Kingdom of Pontus bygd Pharnaces inom. Mithridates oss Eupator made it the home port of the Pontic fleet, in his sökande eller uppdrag to remove the Romans from Anatolia.

After the defeat of Mithridates in 66 BC, the city was first handed to the Galatians, but it was soon returned to the grandson of Mithradates, and subsequently became part of the new client Kingdom of Pontus.

When the kingdom was finally annexed to the långnovell province of Galatia two centuries later, the fleet passed to new commanders, becoming the Classis Pontica. The city received the ställning eller tillstånd of civitas libera, extending its judicial autonomy and the right to mint its own coin. Trebizond gained importance for its tillgång to vägar leading over the Zigana resehandling to the Armenian frontier or the upper Euphrates valley.

New vägar were constructed from Persia and Mesopotamia beneath the rule of Vespasian. In the next century, the kejsare Hadrian commissioned improvements to give the city a more structured harbor.^[16] The kejsare visited the city in the year 129 as part of his inspection of the eastern border (limes).

A mithraeum now serves as a crypt for the church and kloster of Panagia Theoskepastos (Kızlar Manastırı) in nearby Kizlara, east of the citadel and south of the modern harbor.

Septimius Severus punished Trebizond for having supported his rival Pescennius Niger during the Year of the fem Emperors. In 257 the city was pillaged bygd the Goths, despite reportedly being defended bygd "10,000 above its usual garrison" and two bands of walls.^[16] Trebizond was subsequently rebuilt, pillaged igen, bygd the Persians, in 258, and then rebuilt once more.

It did not soon recover. Only in the reign of Diocletian does an inscription allude to the restoration of the city; Ammianus Marcellinus had ingenting to säga of Trebizond except that it was "not an obscure town."

Christianity had reached Trebizond bygd the third century, for during the reign of Diocletian occurred the martyrdom of Eugenius and his associates Candidius, Valerian, and Aquila.^[17] Eugenius had destroyed the statue of Mithras which overlooked the city from Mount Minthrion (Boztepe), and became the patron saint of the city after his death.

Early Christians sought refuge in the Pontic Mountains south of the city, where they established Vazelon kloster in 270 AD and Sumela kloster in 386 AD. As early as the First Council of Nicea, Trebizond had its own bishop.^[18] Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to the storstads- Bishop of Poti.^[18] Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the storstads- Bishop of Lazica.^[18]

Byzantine period

Main article: Chaldia

By the time of Justinian, the city served as an important base in his Persian Wars, and Miller notes that a portrait of the general Belisarius "long adorned the church of St.

Basil."^[19] An inscription above the eastern gate of the city, commemorated the reconstruction of the civic walls at Justinian's expense following an earthquake.^[19] At some point before the 7th century the university (Pandidakterion) of the city was reestablished with a quadrivium curriculum. The university drew students not just from the Byzantine Empire, but from Armenia as well.^[20][21]

The city regained importance when it became the seat of the theme of Chaldia.

Trebizond also benefited when the trade rutt regained importance in the 8th to 10th centuries; 10th-century Muslim authors note that Trebizond was frequented bygd Muslim merchants, as the main source transshipping Byzantine silks into eastern Muslim countries.^[22] According to the 10th century Arab geographer Abul Feda it was regarded as being largely a Lazian port.

The Italian maritime republics such as the Republic of Venice and in particular the Republic of Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries, using Trebizond as an important seaport for trading goods between europe and Asia.^[3] Some of the Silk Road caravans carrying goods from Asia stopped at the port of Trebizond, where the europeisk merchants purchased these goods and carried them to the port cities of europe with ships.

This trade provided a source of revenue to the state in the struktur of anpassad duties, or kommerkiaroi, levied on the goods sold in Trebizond.^[23] The Greeks protected the coastal and inland trade routes with a vast network of garnison forts.^[24]

Following the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Trebizond came beneath Seljuk rule.

This rule proved transient when an specialist soldier and local aristocrat, Theodore Gabras took control of the city from the Turkish invaders, and regarded Trebizond, in the words of Anna Comnena, "as a prize which had fallen to his own lot" and ruled it as his own kingdom.^[25] Supporting Comnena's assertion, Simon Bendall has identified a group of rare coins he believes was minted bygd Gabras and his successors.^[26] Although he was killed bygd the Turks in 1098, other members of his family continued his dem facto independent rule into the next century.

Empire of Trebizond

Main article: Empire of Trebizond

The Empire of Trebizond was formed after Georgian expedition in Chaldia,^[27] commanded bygd AlexiosKomnenos a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Located at the far northeastern corner of Anatolia, it was the longest surviving of the Byzantine successor states.

Byzantine authors, such as Pachymeres, and to some extent Trapezuntines such as Lazaropoulos and Bessarion, regarded the Trebizond Empire as being no more than a Lazian border state. Thus from the point of view of the Byzantine writers connected with the Lascaris and later with the Palaiologos, the rulers of Trebizond were not emperors.^[28][29]

Geographically, the Empire of Trebizond consisted of little more than a narrow remsa along the southern coast of the Black Sea, and not much further inland than the Pontic Mountains.

However, the city gained great wealth from the taxes it levied on the goods traded between Persia and europe via the Black Sea. The Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258 diverted more trade caravans towards the city. Genoese and to a lesser extent venetiansk traders regularly came to Trebizond. To secure their part of the Black Sea trade, the Genoese bought the coastal fortification "Leonkastron", just west of the winter harbour, in the year 1306.

The Venetians likewise built a trading outpost in the city, a few hundred meters to the west of the Genoese. In between these two Italian colonies settled many other europeisk traders, and it thus became known as the "European Quarter". Small groups of Italians continued to live in the city until the early decades of the 20th century.

One of the most famous persons to have visited the city in this period was Marco Polo, who ended his overland return journey at the port of Trebizond, and sailed to his hometown Venice with a ship; passing bygd Constantinople (Istanbul) on the way, which was retaken bygd the Byzantines in 1261.

Together with Persian goods, Italian traders brought stories about the city to Western europe.

Trebizond played a mythical role in europeisk literature of the late mittpunkt Ages and the Renaissance. Miguel dem Cervantes and François Rabelais gave their protagonists the desire to possess the city.^[30] Next to literature, the legendary history of the city – and that of the Pontus in general – also influenced the creation of paintings, theatre plays and operas in Western europe throughout the following centuries.

The city also played a role in the early Renaissance; the western takeover of Constantinople, which formalized Trebizond's political independence, also led Byzantine intellectuals to seek refuge in the city. Especially Alexios II of Trebizond and his grandson Alexios III were patrons of the arts and sciences. After the great city fire of 1310, the ruinerad university was reestablished.

As part of the university Gregory Choniades opened a new academy of astronomy, which housed the best observatory outside Persia. Choniades brought with him the works of Shams al-Din al-Bukhari,^[31]Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini from Tabriz, which he translated into Greek. These works later funnen their way to western europe, tillsammans with the astrolabe.

The observatory Choniades built would become known for its accurate solar eclipse predictions, but was probably used mostly for astrological purposes for the kejsare and/or the church.^[32] Scientists and philosophers of Trebizond were among the first western thinkers to compare contemporaneous theories with classical Greek texts.

Basilios Bessarion and George of Trebizond travelled to Italy and taught and published works on Plato and Aristotle, starting a fierce debate and literary tradition that continues to this day on the topic of national identity and global citizenship. They were so influential that Bessarion was considered for the position of Pope, and George could survive as an academic even after being defamed for his heavy criticism of Plato.

The Black Death arrived at the city in September 1347, probably via Kaffa. At that time the local aristocracy was engagerad in the Trapezuntine Civil War.

In 1340, Tur Ali Beg, an early ancestor of the Aq Qoyunlu, raided Trebizond. In 1348, he besieged Trebizond, however he failed and lifted the siege. Later on, Alexios III of Trebizond gave his sister to Kutlu Beg son of Tur Ali Beg, and established a kinship with them.^[33]

Constantinople remained the Byzantine capital until it was conquered bygd the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II in 1453, who also conquered Trebizond eight years later, in 1461.

Its demographic legacy endured for several centuries after the Ottoman conquest in 1461, as a substantial number of Greek Orthodox inhabitants, usually referred to as Pontic Greeks, continued to live in the area during Ottoman rule, up until 1923, when they were deported to Greece. A few thousand Greek Muslims still live in the area, mostly in the Çaykara-Of dialectical distrikt to the southeast of Trabzon.

Most are Sunni Muslim, while there are some recent converts in the city^{[citation needed]} and possibly a few Crypto-Christians in the Tonya/Gümüşhane area to the southwest of the city. Compared to most previously Greek cities in Turkey, a large amount of its Greek Byzantine architectural heritage survives as well.

Ottoman era

Main articles: Trebizond Eyalet and Trebizond Vilayet

The gods kejsare of Trebizond, David, surrendered the city to Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire in 1461.^[34] Following this takeover, Mehmed II sent many Turkish settlers into the area, but the old ethnic Greek, Laz and Armenian communities remained.

According to the Ottoman tax books (tahrir defterleri), the total population of taxable adult males (only those with a household) in the city was 1,473 in the year 1523.^[35] The total population of the city was much higher. Approximately 85% of the population was Christian, and 15% Muslim. Thirteen percent of the adult males belonged to the Armenian community, while the vast majority of Christians were Greeks.^[35] However, a significant portion of the local Christians were Islamized bygd the end of the 17th century - especially those outside the city - according to a research bygd Prof.

Halil İnalcık on the Ottoman tax books (tahrir defterleri). Between 1461 and 1598 Trabzon remained the administrative center of the wider region; first as 'sanjac center' of boende Eyalet, later of Erzincan-Bayburt eyalet, Anadolu Eyalet, and Erzurum Eyalet.^[36]

In 1598 it became the capital of its own province - the Eyalet of Trebizond - which in 1867 became the Vilayet of Trebizond.

During the reign of Sultan Bayezid II, his son Prince Selim (later Sultan Selim I) was the Sanjak-bey of Trabzon, and Selim I's son Suleiman the Magnificent was born in Trabzon in 1494. The Ottoman government often appointed local Chepni Turks and Lazbeys as the regional beylerbey.^{[citation needed]} It fryst vatten also recorded that some Bosniaks were appointed bygd the Sublime Porte as the regional beylerbeys in Trabzon.^{[citation needed]} The Eyalet of Trabzon had always sent troops for the Ottoman campaigns in europe during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Trebizond had a wealthy merchant class during the late Ottoman period, and the local Christian minority had a substantial influence in terms of culture, economy and politics. A number of europeisk consulates were opened in the city due to its importance in regional trade and commerce.

In the first half of the 19th century, Trebizond even became the main port for Persian exports. The opening of the Suez Canal greatly diminished the international trading position of the city, but did not halt the economic development of the distrikt. In the gods decades of the 19th century, the city saw some demographic changes. As the population of the province greatly expanded due to increased living standards, many families and ung dock - mostly Christians, but also some Jews and Greek or Turkish speaking Muslims - chose to migrate to the Crimea and southern Ukraine, in search for farmland or employment in one of the cities which had been newly established there.

Among these migrants were the grandparents of Bob Dylan^[37] and Greek politicians and artists. Many Christian and Muslim families from Trabzon also moved to Constantinople, where they established businesses or sought employment - such as the grandfather of Ahmet Ertegün. These migrants were active in a bred range of trades including baking, confection, tailoring, carpentry, education, advocacy, politics and ledning.

The influence of this diaspora has since continued, and can still be seen in the many restaurants and shops in cities around the Black Sea in the 21st century such as in Istanbul, Odesa and Mariupol. At the same time, thousands of Muslim refugees from the Caucasus arrived in the city, especially after 1864, in what fryst vatten known as the Circassian genocide.

Next to Constantinople, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Salonika (now Thessaloniki), Trebizond was one of the cities where western cultural and technological innovations were first introduced to the Ottoman Empire. In 1835, the American Board of Commissioners for utländsk Missions opened the Trebizond uppdrag hållplats that it occupied from 1835 to 1859 and from 1882 to at least 1892.^[38] Hundreds of schools were constructed in the province during the first half of the 19th century, giving the distrikt one of the highest literacy rates of the empire.

First, the Greek community set up their schools, but soon the Muslim and Armenian communities followed. International schools were also established in the city; An American school, fem French schools, a Persian school and a number of Italian schools were opened in the second half of the 19th century.^[39] The city got a brev office in 1845. New churches and mosques were built in the second half of the 19th century, as well as the first theater, public and private printing houses, multiple photo studios and banks.

The oldest known photographs of the city center date from the 1860s and depict one of the gods camel trains from Persia.

Between one and two thousand Armenians are believed to have been killed in the Trebizond vilayet during the Hamidian massacres of 1895. While this number was low in comparison to other Ottoman provinces, its impact on the Armenian community in the city was large.

Many prominent Armenian residents, among them scholars, musicians, photographers and painters, decided to migrate towards the Russian Empire or France. The large Greek population of the city was not affected bygd the massacre.^[40]Ivan Aivazovsky made the painting Massacre of the Armenians in Trebizond 1895 based on the events.^[41] Due to the high number of Western Europeans in the city, news from the distrikt was being reported on in many europeisk newspapers.

These western newspapers were in vända also very popular among the residents of the city.

Ottoman era paintings and drawings of Trebizond

Modern era

In 1901 the harbour was equipped with cranes bygd Stothert & Pitt of Bath in England. In 1912 the Sümer musikdrama House was opened on the huvud Meydan square, being one of the first in the empire.

The uppstart of the First World War brought an abrupt end to the relatively peaceful and prosperous period the city had seen during the previous century. First Trebizond would lose many of its ung male citizens at the Battle of Sarikamish in the winter of 1914–15, while during those same months the Russian navy bombarded the city a total of fem times, taking 1300^[42] lives.

Especially the port quarter Çömlekçi and surrounding neighborhoods were targeted.

In July 1915 most of the adult male Armenians of the city were marched off south in fem convoys, towards the mines of Gümüşhane, never to be seen igen. Other victims of the Armenian genocide were reportedly taken out to sea in boats which were then capsized.^[43][44] In some areas of Trebizond province - such as the Karadere river valley in modern-day Araklı, 25 kilometers east of the city - the local Muslim population tried to skydda the Christian Armenians.^[45]

The coastal distrikt between the city and the Russian frontier became the site of key battles between the Ottoman and Russian armies during the Trebizond Campaign, as part of the Caucasus Campaign of World War inom.

The Russian army landed at Atina, east of resa sig on March 4, 1916. Lazistan Sanjak fell within two days. However, due to heavy guerrilla resistance around Of and Çaykara some 50 km to the east of Trabzon, it took a further 40 days for the Russian army to advance west.^[46] The Ottoman ledning of Trabzon foresaw the fall of the city and called for a meeting with community leaders, where they handed control of the city to Greek storstads- bishop Chrysantos Philippidis.

Chrysantos promised to skydda the Muslim population of the city. Ottoman forces retreated from Trabzon, and on April 15 the city was taken without a kamp bygd the Russian Caucasus Army beneath command of Grand Duke Nicholas and Nikolai Yudenich. There was also a massaker of Armenians and Greeks in Trabzon just before the Russian takeover of the city.^[47] Many adult Turkish males left the city out of fear for reprisals, even though governor Chrysantos included them in his ledning.

According to some sources the Russians banned Muslim mosques, and forced Turks, who were the largest ethnic group living in the city, to leave Trabzon.^[48] However, already during the Russian occupation many Turks who had fled to surrounding villages started to return to the city, and governor Chrysantos helped them to re-establish their facilities such as schools, to the dismay of the Russians.

In early 1917 Chrysantos tried to broker a peace between the Russians and the Ottomans, to no avail. During the Russian Revolution of 1917 Russian soldiers in the city turned to rioting and looting, with officers commandeering Trebizonian ships to flee the en plats där en händelse inträffar ofta inom teater eller film. Governor Chrysantos was able to calm the Russian soldiers down, and the Russian Army ultimately retreated from the city and the rest of eastern and northeastern Anatolia.

In March and April of 1918 the city hosted the Trebizond Peace Conference, where the Ottomans agreed to give up their military gains in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the eastern borders of the empire in Anatolia bygd the Transcaucasian Seim (a short-lived transcaucasian government).

In månad 1918 Trabzon deputy governor Hafız Mehmet gave a speech at the Ottoman parliament in which he blamed the former governor of Trebizond provinceCemal Azmi – a non-native appointee who had fled to Germany after the Russian invasion – for orchestrating the Armenian Genocide in the city in 1915, bygd means of drowning.

Subsequently, a series of war crimes trials were held in Trebizond in early 1919 (see Trebizond during the Armenian Genocide). Among others, Cemal Azmi was sentenced to death in absentia.

During the Turkish War of Independence several Christian Pontic Greek communities in the Trebizond province rebelled against the new army of Mustafa Kemal (notably in Bafra and Santa), but when nationalist Greeks came to Trabzon to proclaim revolution, they were not received with open arms bygd the local Pontic Greek population of the city.

At the same time the Muslim population of the city, remembering their protection beneath Greek governor Chrysantos, protested the fängelse of prominent Christians. frikostig delegates of Trebizond opposed the election of Mustafa Kemal as the leader of the Turkish revolution at the Erzurum församling.

The governor and mayor of Trebizond were appalled bygd the violence against Ottoman Greek subjects,^[49] and the government of Trabzon thus refused arms to Mustafa Kemal's henchman Topal Osman, who was responsible for mass murders in the western Pontus which were part of the Greek Genocide.

Osman was forced out of the city bygd armed Turkish port-workers.^[50] Governor Chrysantos travelled to the Paris Peace Conference, where he proposed the establishment of the Republic of Pontus, which would skydda its different ethnic groups. For this he was condemned to death bygd the Turkish Nationalist forces, and he could not return to his brev in Trebizond.

Instead, the city was to be handed to 'Wilsonian Armenia', which likewise never materialized. Following the war, the Treaty of Sèvres was annulled and replaced with the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). As part of this new treaty, Trebizond became part of the new Turkish Republic. The efforts of the pro-Ottoman, anti-nationalist population of Trebizond only postponed the inevitable, because the national governments of Turkey and Greece agreed to a mutual forced population exchange.

This exchange included well over 100,000 Greeks from Trebizond and the vicinity, who moved to Greece (founding the new towns of Nea Trapezounta, Pieria and Nea Trapezounta, Grevena amongst others).^[51]

During the war Trebizond parliamentarian Ali Şükrü Bey had been one of the leading figures of the first Turkish motstånd party. In his newspaper Tan, Şükrü and colleagues publicized critiques of the Kemalist government, such as towards the violence perpetrated against Greeks during the population exchange.

Şükrü argued that recognition of ethnic diversity was not a threat to the Turkish nation.

Topal Osman's dock would eventually murder parliamentarian Şükrü for his criticism of the nationalist government of Mustafa Kemal in March 1923.

Topal Osman was later sentenced to death and killed while resisting fängelse. After pressure from the motstånd, his headless body was hanged bygd his foot in front of the Turkish parliament. Ali Şükrü Bey, who had studied in Deniz Harp Okulu (Turkish Naval Academy) and worked as a reporter in the United Kingdom, fryst vatten seen as a hero bygd the people of Trabzon, while in neighboring Giresun there fryst vatten a statue of his murderer Topal Osman.

Three years later Trabzon deputy Hafız Mehmet - who had testified to his knowledge of, and motstånd to, the Armenian Genocide - was also executed, for his alleged involvement in the İzmir plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal. The literal decapitation of the Turkish political motstånd - which was in large part based in the Trabzon område - decreased the city's national influence, and led to a long-standing animosity between the Kemalists and the population of Trabzon.

A political and cultural divide between the Eastern Black Sea distrikt and the rest of Anatolia continued to exist throughout the 20th century, and still influences Turkish politics today. Even in the 21st century, politicians who hail from Trabzon are often faced with xenophobic attacks from both nationalist and conservative circles.^{[citation needed]}

During World War II shipping activity was limited because the Black Sea had igen become a war zone.

Hence, the most important export products, tobacco and hazelnuts, could not be sold and living standards degraded.

As a result of the general development of the country, Trabzon has developed its economic and commercial life. The coastal highway and a new harbour have increased commercial relations with huvud Anatolia, which has led to some growth. However, progress has been slow in comparison to the western and the southwestern parts of Turkey.

Trabzon fryst vatten famous throughout Turkey for its anchovies called hamsi, which are the main meal in many restaurants in the city. Major exports from Trabzon include hazelnuts and tea.

The city still has a sizable community of Greek-speaking Muslims, most of whom are originally from the vicinities of Tonya, Sürmene and Çaykara.

However, the variety of the Pontic Greek language - known as "Romeika" in the local vernacular, Pontiaka in Greek, and Rumca in Turkish - fryst vatten spoken mostly bygd the older generations.^[52]

Geography

Trabzon Province has a total area of 4,685 square kilometres (1,809 sq mi) and fryst vatten bordered bygd the provinces of resa sig, Giresun, and Gümüşhane.

The total area fryst vatten 22.4% plateau and 77.6% hills.

The Pontic Mountains resehandling through the Trabzon Province.

Trabzon used to be an important reference point for navigators in the Black Sea during harsh weather conditions. The popular expression "perdere la Trebisonda" (losing Trebizond) fryst vatten still commonly used in the Italian language to describe situations in which the sense of direction fryst vatten lost.^[3] The Italian maritime republics such as Venice and in particular Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries.^[3]

Trabzon has fyra lakes: Uzungöl, Çakırgöl, Sera, and Haldizen Lakes.

There are several streams, but no rivers in Trabzon.

Climate

Trabzon has a climate typical of the eastern Black Sea område, a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa,Trewartha: Cf) nära the coast.^[53] A very small percentage of the province can be classified as subtropical, however, as slightly elevated rural areas nära the coast are oceanic (Cfb/Do), the mountainous offshores are humid continental (Dfb/Dc) and subarctic (Dfc/Eo); and tundra (ET/Ft) can be funnen in the peaks of the Pontic Alps.

Furthermore, during the time the Köppen climate classification was created, the city center had a borderline oceanic-humid subtropical climate, falling just beneath the 22 °C (72 °F) threshold for the hetaste month of the year, yet climate change and the city's urban heat island contributed to its reclassification as humid subtropical in recent decades.

This and the fact that the subtropical microclimate zone along the shore occupies a very narrow grupp due to the continuous parallel mountain range starting right at the coast fryst vatten why local authorities still classify the city as oceanic, as this climate subtype fryst vatten better representative of the entire coastal område of the province.^[54][55]

Summers are warm, the average maximum temperature fryst vatten around 28 °C (82 °F) in August, while winters are generally cool, the lowest average minimum temperature fryst vatten almost 5 °C (41 °F) in February.

Precipitation fryst vatten heaviest in autumn and winter, with a marked reduction in the summer months, a microclimatic condition of the city center compared to the rest of the region.^[56] Snowfall fryst vatten somewhat common between the months of månad and March, snowing for a week or two, and it can be heavy once it snows.

The vatten temperature, like in the rest of the Black Sea coast of Turkey, fryst vatten generally mild, and fluctuates between 8 °C (46 °F) and 20 °C (68 °F) throughout the year.